Sketch and Label:

1. a simplified diagram of the structure of a lipoprotein.
2. a simplified diagram of the four stages of glucose catabolism.  Account for the CO₂, electrons (= hydrogens), and ATP extracted or produced in each stage, accounting for the energy yield from one glucose.
3. the structure of a mitochondrion. Show where the four stages of glucose catabolism occur relative to the structure of the mitochondrion.

Describe:

Chapter 25: Urinary System

Define:

 

General Terms	Kidney Anatomy	The Nephron I -- Renal Corpuscle
urinary system  urine  nephrology  urology  retroperitoneal  body buffers	renal capsule  adipose capsule  renal fascia  renal hilus renal sinus  renal cortex  renal medulla  renal pyramid  renal papilla  renal column papillary ducts minor calyx  major calyx  renal pelvis parenchyma nephron  cortical nephron  juxtamedullary nephron	renal corpuscle  glomerular capsule  capsular space  endothelial capsular membrane = filtration membrane  fenestrations  podocytes  pedicels  filtration slits  slit membrane

 

The Nephron II -- Renal Tubules	The Nephron III -- Blood Supply & Juxtaglomerular Apparatus	Physiology of Glomerular Filtration
renal tubule  proximal convoluted tubule  loop of Henle = nephron loop = loop of the nephron descending limb of the loop of Henle  ascending limb of the loop of Henle  thin ascending limb  thick ascending limb  distal convoluted tubule  collecting duct	afferent arteriole  glomerulus  efferent arteriole  peritubular capillaries  vasa recta vasoconstriction juxtaglomerular apparatus  macula densa cells juxtaglomerular cells	filtration glomerular filtration  glomerular filtrate  net filtration pressure  glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure  capsular hydrostatic pressure  blood colloid osmotic pressure  glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

 

Regulation I - Renin-Angiotensis and Autoregulation	Regulation II - Other Endocrine Systems	Renal Tubular Physiology
renin-angiotensin system renin  angiotensinogen  angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) angiotensin I angiotensin II renal autoregulation	aldosterone adrenal cortex hypothalamus  antidiuretic hormone (ADH) = vasopressin atrial natriuretic peptide = ANP  parathyroid hormone = parathormone = PTH calcitonin = thyrocalcitonin	tubular reabsorption  primary active transport  secondary active transport  symporter  transport maximum  renal threshold tubular secretion  antiporter  Na+/K+ ATPase urea carbonic anhydrase bicarbonate ion = HCO3-

 

Water Balance & Renal Clearance	Clinical Terms	Urinary Tract & Bladder
obligatory water reabsorption  facultative water reabsorption  osmolarity countercurrent flow  countercurrent mechanism  diuretic  blood urea nitrogen (BUN) plasma creatinine  renal plasma clearance  inulin  para-aminohippuric acid (PAH)	glucosuria = glycosuria urinalysis  anuria  nocturia  polyuria  dysuria  hematuria micturition  urination  incontinence  retention dialysis  hemodialysis	mucosa  epithelium  lamina propria  muscularis  adventitia  serosa  ureters  transitional epithelium urinary bladder  trigone  internal urethral orifice  detrusor muscle  internal urethral sphincter  external urethral sphincter urethra  external urethral orifice  prostatic urethra  membranous urethra  spongy urethra

 

Urinary Tract Diseases
renal calculi = kidney stones  shock wave lithotripsy  ptosis (= nephroptosis) pyelonephritis = pyelitis  glomerulonephritis  nephrotic syndrome  renal failure  polycystic kidney disease  diabetes insipidus urethritis  cystitis

List:

1. the organs of the urinary system and the function of each.
2. the parts of the renal tubule (in detail) in the order in which they are encountered as filtrate is formed and modified before being emptied into the minor calyces.
3. the sequence of blood vessels from the arcuate arteries to arcuate veins of the kidney in the sequence in which they are encountered by a circulating RBC.
4. the four processes the nephron carries out to form urine and describe where these processes occur in the nephron.
5. the sequence of events involved in secondary active transport as is used for reabsorption and secretion of some substances by nephron tubule cells.
6. several disorders and homeostatic imbalances of the urinary system, the cause, and the principle part of the urinary system affected. 

Sketch and label:

1. a simple diagram of a longitudinal section through the kidney and label its structures.
2. a simple sketch of the nephron and label its structures.
3. a simple sketch of the endothelial-capsular (i.e., filtration) membrane and label its structure. In particular, identify the features of the filtration membrane that retain some substances in the blood while allowing other substances to be filtered. Identify the substances that are retained in the blood versus those that enter the tubule.
4. a simple illustration of a Proximal Convoluted Tubule cell (PCT cell) and label the components that illustrate the basic mechanism of secondary active transport used to reabsorb or secrete substances in the nephron.
5. a simple hemodialysis system. List some substances that would be present in the dialyzing fluid at the same concentration as in the blood versus those that would be present in the dialyzing fluid at very low concentration.
6.  a simple sketch of the juxtaglomerular apparatus and list the functional roles of each component part.

Describe:

1. the balance of forces that determines the Net Filtration Pressure (NFP) across the endothelial-capsular membrane. Explain the effect of increased permeability on NFP. Explain the effect of renal calculi on NFP. What is the relationship (mathematical or proportional relationship) between NFP and GFR.
2. four mechanisms of regulating Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?
3. three mechanisms by which the nephron can regulate the pH of the blood. Make a simple sketch of how these processes occur in the PCT and DCT of the nephron and in the collecting ducts.
4. the three histological layers of the ureters and urinary bladder.

Explain:

1. how renal clearance of different substances, inulin versus para-aminohippuric acid (PAH) can be used to evaluate different aspects of renal function.
2. the role of the countercurrent multiplier mechanism of Henle's loop versus the vasa recta of Henle's loop in forming a hyperosmotic medullary interstitial fluid and why this hyperosmotic medullary fluid is important in the formation of a concentrated urine. Why must the kidney always form some urine (assuming filtration is occurring normally)?
3. the regulatory mechanisms that determine if the nephron produces a dilute or a concentrated urine.
4. four different mechanisms by which diuretics can increase urine volume.
5.  the molecular mechanisms which operate in the renal tubule to secrete H⁺ ions and reabsorb bicarbonate ions and give their specific locations.
6. the three basic mechanisms of regulating blood pH.
7. what the term compensation means in relation the regulating pH in the body.
8. how hyponatremia can lead to circulatory shock.

Chapter 26: Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis

Define:

 

General Terms	Electrolytes I - General Terms	Electrolytes II - Specific Examples
body fluid intracellular fluid extracellular fluid interstitial fluid = intercellular fluid = tissue fluid lymph blood plasma intracellular compartment = cytoplasmc compartment two fluid compartment model three fluid compartment model semipermeable fluid balance preformed water metabolic water vesicular transport transcytosis diffusion bulk flow edema dehydration	electrolyte monovalent divalent cation anion nonelectrolyte percent concentration milliequivalents milliosmoles osmotic pressure osmolarity isotonic hypertonic hypotonic	sodium = natrium hyponatremia hypernatremia chloride hypochloremia hyperchloremia potassium = kalium hypokalemia hyperkalemia bicarbonate calcium hypocalcemia hypercalcemia phosphate hypophosphatemia hyperphosphatemia magnesium hypomagnesemia hypermagnesemia

 

Regulation of Electrolyte Balance	Acid-Base Homeostasis	Clinical Terms
hypothalamic thirst center antidiuretic hormone (ADH) = vasopressin atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) aldosterone renin - angiotensin system parathyroid hormone (PTH) = parathormone calcitonin	buffer protein buffer system hemoglobin buffer phosphate buffer system carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system carbonic anhydrase volatile acid fixed acid acidosis acidemia respiratory acidosis metabolic acidosis alkalosis alkalemia respiratory alkalosis metabolic alkalosis compensation respiratory compensation hypoventilation hyperventilation metabolic compensation	salicylate poisoning chronic obstructive pulmonary disease = COPD emphysema cystic fibrosis

List:

1. the inputs versus losses of water responsible for fluid balance in the body.
2.  the ways the body can buffer blood and body fluid pH.
3.  pathological causes of dehydration.
4.  the compartments in the two fluid compartment model.
5.  the compartments in the three fluid compartment model.
6.  the electrolytes which predominate in the intracellular fluid compartment.
7.  the electrolytes which predominate in the extracellular fluid compartment.
8.  the compartments in the three fluid compartment model which have large concentrations of proteins.
9.  the three actions which can quench thirst.

Sketch and label:

1. a simple diagram illustrating the two fluid compartment model of the body.
2. a simple diagram illustrating the three fluid compartment model of the body.

Describe:

1.  the mechanisms regulating thirst.
2.  the main differences in solute composition between the intracellular versus the extracellular fluid compartments of the body. What is the main difference in solute concentration between the plasma and the interstitial fluid compartments of the body?
3.  the hormonal regulation of Na⁺ and K⁺ in body fluids.
4.  the hormonal regulation of Ca⁺⁺ and HPO₄^-2 in body fluids.

Explain: